Energy to grow, to move, to fight, to produce stuff and also to reproduce.

Generally, living organisms get this energy from food. It fuels us, just as it fuels animals, plants and bacteria.

But where exactly is this energy in food? How do bacteria and other living organisms access this energy? And what do they do if their favourite food is not around?

To answer these questions, let’s look at how molecules store energy.

How do living organisms gain energy?

Each chemical bond between atoms contains energy. Hence, a molecule that is made of many atoms and thus many chemical bonds, contains energy. When such a chemical bond opens, it releases energy in the form of electrons.

Depending on the kind of chemical bond within the molecule, these electrons can have higher or lower energy levels. Thus, they contain more or less energy.

So, to obtain energy from molecules, organisms need to break apart molecules and extract the electrons with high energy. But this is not as easy as it sounds. Chemical bonds are quite tight and it actually requires energy to break them open.

Hence, organisms need to have the right sets of proteins that can break open specific chemical bonds in molecules. These kinds of proteins are called enzymes. So, only if an organism has enzymes to break apart glucose, it can use glucose to extract its electrons and obtain energy.

Interestingly, most organisms do exactly that. They break apart glucose into smaller products and take the freed electrons. In that case, glucose is the so-called electron donor.

Now, these electrons need to go somewhere, since they are full of energy. So, organisms save this energy by transferring these electrons onto other molecules. These molecules have lower energy levels, hence they like to take up electrons. We call these molecules electron acceptors.

But finding the right electron acceptor is not as easy as it sounds.

The many steps from an electron donor to an electron acceptor

Imagine you stand on a high wall and want to get down onto the ground. You could take one big jump to reach the ground. But then you would risk that this high fall would give you so much energy that you might break your knees.

So, you could take a set of stairs, that brings you to the ground in multiple steps. Each step only releases a small chunk of energy but they would definitely not hurt you.

It is the same with electrons from donors with a lot of energy. Transferring these electrons to a final electron acceptor would free up too much energy at once. This could actually burn a cell. Hence, organisms transfer these electrons onto intermediate electron acceptors.

Each of these transfer steps only releases a small chunk of energy that keep organisms warm but also fuel cellular processes. In bacteria, these transfer processes happen in their membranes, where the released energy is directly used.

Here, the released electrons energise flagella so that bacteria can swim. Electrons can also activate transporters so that bacteria can import or export stuff. Not needed electrons and their energies are stored in energy-saving molecules like ATP.

This whole process of electron transfer from a donor to its final acceptor is generally what researchers call cellular or – more specifically – bacterial respiration.

Which molecules do bacteria use for cellular respiration?

Cellular respiration fuels most living organisms. And glucose is a molecule with one of the highest energy levels. Hence, breaking down glucose to extract its electrons is the most common in living organisms.

Animals do it. Fungi do it. So, bacteria are no exception to it.

And as a final electron acceptor, most organisms use oxygen. This molecule has a very low energy level and is basically everywhere so most organisms transfer their electrons to it.

This is what we call aerobic respiration (which is what we generally do as well). But it comes with great risk.

The downside of aerobic bacterial respiration

As soon as an oxygen molecule is fuelled with just one electron, it becomes hyperreactive. Such a semi-activated oxygen molecule can basically react with any compound in a cell and damage it.

This is what makes aerobic respiration quite dangerous. So, every organism aims to hide these reactive oxygen molecules in the membrane.

Yet, it can happen that such a reactive oxygen molecule escapes the membrane. In this case, a special protein binds it and breaks it apart. So, every organism that does aerobic respiration has this same kind of protective protein to get rid of reactive oxygen molecules.

This means that whenever scientists find a new microbe, they first test whether this new microbe has these proteins. To test this, they add a bit of hydrogen peroxide to the bacterial colony. When bubbles come out of the bacteria, it means that they do aerobic respiration. In this case, they have the enzymes to break apart the reactive oxygen molecule and produce oxygen from it.

Which other molecules can bacteria use as energy source?

As we said, most bacteria use glucose as an energy source for cellular respiration. However, there are also many fancy exceptions. And these exceptions make the bacterial – and microbial – world so colourful and diverse.

While many bacteria can extract electrons from many different organic acids and amino acids, some use sulphur compounds. Some bacteria also break apart greenhouse gases like methane, carbon monoxide or even hydrogen gas. Since these bacteria might be helpful in tackling our climate problems, they are of particular interest to researchers!

What does bacterial respiration look like without oxygen?

We surely need our oxygen for respiration. Yet, many bacteria and fungi can live with only small amounts of it or even no oxygen at all.

In this case, they do anaerobic respiration. This basically means that they don’t transfer their electrons to oxygen as an electron acceptor.

Instead, many bacteria have enzymes to transfer their electrons to different electron acceptors. And these depend on what the bacteria have available around them. These electron acceptors can be nitrate or sulphate compounds, salts like arsenate or even metals like iron and gold.

Also, in many microbes, anaerobic respiration is closely related to microbial fermentation. In this case, the bacteria break apart glucose but produce molecules that do not require oxygen.

Just think about yeast that produces ethanol in beer and wine. Or lactic acid bacteria in your sauerkraut and yoghurt that produce lactic acid to make the food more acidic. Lastly, there are fungi like Zymomonas mobilis that produce huge amounts of ethanol from glucose.

Bacterial respiration makes the microbial world diverse

As we have seen, bacteria learned to use various sources to gain energy. They created the right enzymes to extract electrons from fancy high-energy molecules.

And then they learned to transfer these electrons onto even fancier molecules to gain the most energy. Some of these processes even involve bacteria producing shiny gold!

In my opinion, these truly amazing superpowers make the bacterial world so incredibly colourful and fascinating!

The post How bacteria gain energy from cellular respiration to fuel life appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

So, they talked of cocci and bacilli based on the spheres and rods that they saw under the microscope.

And they classified microbes and bacteria based on these shapes.

It came only with later, modern technologies that scientists learned that there was more to bacteria than their shapes. Even though bacteria looked similar, they had different superpowers.

Yet, some of these bacterial superpowers are indeed influenced by their cell shapes.

So, what is it about bacterial shapes? Why do bacteria look differently? And how do the different shapes of bacteria help them survive and thrive?

What gives bacteria their shapes?

To protect themselves from the environment, bacteria as well as all other organisms have cell envelopes. These keep the cellular machines and internal parts together so that a bacterium can function within this envelope.

And this envelope also gives bacteria their shape.

Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have a layer of so-called peptidoglycan within their envelope. This peptidoglycan layer is made of sugars that are linked together by very strong bonds. This is why the peptidoglycan layer is pretty rigid and stiff and has a specific shape in each bacterium.

Either on the inside or on the outside, the peptidoglycan layer is linked to the cellular membranes. Together, these make up the bacterial envelope with a specific cell shape.

What different shapes do bacteria have?

Microbiologists have different ways to classify known bacterial shapes. Here, I will introduce you to the bacterial shapes according to what makes the most sense to me.

Rod-shaped bacteria

As the name suggests, these bacteria have a rod or cylindrical shape. Examples of rod-shaped bacteria are Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis.

Scientists are also convinced that rod-shaped bacteria are the evolutionary ancestors of all other bacterial shapes.

The shape comes from proteins that form long cables within the bacterial cell. These span out the whole bacterium from one end to the other.

Rod-shaped bacteria grow by two modes that we talk about in Why bacteria divide into two and grow with the help of a strong ring: First, they extend their cell size by growing the peptidoglycan, the cable proteins and the membrane.

Second, the cable proteins determine the middle of the cell, where the bacterium produces a special ring. Eventually, this ring narrows so that the bacterium divides and two bacterial cells form.

Spherical bacteria

The spherical bacteria – or so-called cocci – include many pathogenic bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

Microbiologists think that spherical bacteria were once rod-shaped as well. However, spherical bacteria do not have these long cable proteins that extend their cell bodies. Thus, they stay spherical and grow by dividing their spherical cells right in the middle.

However, sometimes the two daughter cells do not completely divide and they stay attached to each other. This is why some spherical bacteria live as so-called diplococci.

Curved bacteria

Curved bacteria have the shape of a comma or banana and are sometimes also slightly twisted. Examples of curved or banana-shaped bacteria are Caulobacter crescentus and Vibrio cholerae.

These curved bacteria usually live in watery environments where there are flows. Here, the curved shape helps the bacteria to align with the flow while staying attached to a surface.

In the case of Caulobacter crescentus, one end of the bacterium is glued to a surface with a strong super glue. When this bacterium divides in the middle, one daughter cell remains attached to the surface, while the other one can swim away and find a new location to settle down.

Spiral bacteria

Spiral bacteria are a mix of rods and curves which give them a helical twist. Hence, these bacteria have a corkscrew shape.

Many pathogenic bacteria use their corkscrew shape to swim through gel-like solutions. This includes Helicobacter pylori and Campylobacter jejuni.

Since spiral – or helical – bacteria are also thinner, they can reach locations that are too narrow for other bacteria to reach. They also use their flagella to push themselves forward and “wriggle” through narrow pores.

Star-shaped bacteria

Some bacteria look even fancier than others: They are real stars – yes, bacteria with a star shape.

While we don’t know much yet about star-shaped bacteria, they belong to the so-called Stella species or are Methylomirabilis oxyfera. These usually grow in freshwater, soil and sewage.

The star shape comes from six little arms that extend out of the bacterial cell. These push and grow to the outside giving these bacteria a shiny star shape.

Why do bacteria have different shapes?

Now that we have seen the different shapes of bacteria, you might ask yourself, why do bacteria have these different shapes? How do they help them?

As always in biology, it comes down to how a property helps a bacterium survive in a certain location. Often, the cell shape gives a bacterium advantages over other bacteria and it is easier for them to settle down and face harsh environments.

For example, spherical cells have the lowest surface-to-volume ratio. This means they have a large envelope surface through which they can take up a lot of nutrients. All this while their cell volume is relatively small. So they don’t actually need that many nutrients. This helps cocci to grow in locations where there are little amounts of nutrients.

On the other hand, rod-shaped bacteria often have flagella. And thanks to their shapes, they are efficient swimmers. This allows them to swim to new places in cases of danger or the lack of nutrients.

Bacterial cell shapes help face harsh environments

Also, straight rod cells can pack into biofilms more efficiently and build organised structures. This helps them colonise different locations and resist dangerous environments.

Many rod-shaped bacteria also form longer filamentous organisms. These stronger and larger structures protect bacteria from being eaten by other organisms. Another advantage of these multicellular organisms is that they allow more cells to attach to surfaces and colonise hosts.

Lastly, both curved and helical bacteria use their shapes to get better around their environments. Curved bacteria grow in watery environments but also in our guts. Here, their shapes help them align with the flow of water or our gut content while they stay attached to a surface or the gut wall. This keeps them at their preferred location and protects them from being flushed away.

Spiral bacteria use a fascinating helical movement to screw through gel-like or viscous fluids. This for example helps pathogens swim through the mucus of our stomach and guts and colonise us and make us sick.

Bacteria and their shapes

Here, we looked at the different shapes that bacteria have and how these help them survive. Bacteria always face harsh and new environments and conditions and only survive if they have the right tools or means.

So, by adapting their shapes, bacteria often have advantages over other bacteria. Plus, they look cool and fabulous!

The post Looking fabulous: Why bacteria need to stay in shape too appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

Also, bacteria want to grow and flourish and reproduce. But they are only single cells so that their way of reproduction is unique. They reproduce asexually meaning you only need one parent bacterium to make two daughter bacteria.

When you think about it, bacterial cell division seems very easy: Start with one bacterium, divide it in the middle and you end up with two.

However, the mechanism of cell division is pretty complex and involves at least three tasks:

• the bacterium needs to decide WHERE to divide
• get all the needed machinery to the division site
• produce new cell envelope material to separate the two new daughter cells

How a bacterium starts cell division

As you can imagine, for most bacteria it makes the most sense to divide straight in the middle. Like this, they end up with two daughter cells of the same size.

This means a bacterium needs to find its middle and mark it. While it is not completely clear yet to researchers how bacteria find the exact middle, they know it involves a so-called Z-protein.

This Z-protein can bind two things: itself and the inside of the bacterial cell envelope. But it only binds the cell envelope where it is straight and not bent. And this is only the case in the middle of the bacterial cell envelope.

Hence, the Z-proteins bind themselves in a long chain linked to the straight cell envelope. Eventually, they form a ring on the inside of a bacterial cell. And this so-called Z-ring stays in the middle of the bacterium.

Also, the Z-ring is only stable when bacteria have enough nutrients and do not encounter any stress situations. This reassures that bacteria only divide when they have all the needed supplies.

How bacteria divide and produce two daughter cells

Once this Z-ring is stable, it recruits helper machineries to this now defined division site.

The Z-ring is a sign of an upcoming cell division. Now, the bacterium knows it needs to activate machineries to produce more cell envelope material and become longer. And to increase their cell envelopes, bacteria use ferries, tunnels and bridges to transport lipids into the cell envelope.

Like this, the bacterium becomes longer and can start the actual cell division. At the same time, the Z-ring becomes tighter and the cell envelope gets its natural bend again.

Now, two processes happen at the same time: Bacteria cut open their peptidoglycan envelope to separate the two daughter cells and also produce envelope material to close both cells.

After this happened, we have two daughter cells coming from the same parent. They both share the same cell envelope and genome. This is why we consider them identical twins.

But do all bacteria produce identical twins upon cell division?

Do bacteria always divide in the middle and produce identical daughter cells?

Yes, most bacteria are symmetrical. And when they divide right in the middle, they produce two identical daughter cells.

Researchers could even watch bacteria during this process thanks to amazing microscopy techniques. You can see the single stages of bacterial cell division and how bacteria produce the cell envelope in the image below.

Yet, the bacterium Caulobacter crescentus has two different cell ends. It can stick to a surface with its sticky stalk on one end and have flagella on the other.

This bacterium also starts cell division in the middle like what we discussed above. However, the new daughter cells are now different: one is still glued to the surface and the other one has flagella and can swim away.

Also, the bacterium Helicobacter pylori with its helical shape can never really find its perfect middle. Hence, the Z-ring forms somewhere inside the bacterium and its daughter cells always have different sizes.

And then there are funny bacteria that decided they don’t even need to divide in the middle. Bacteria like Gemmatimonas aurantiaca grow “budding” daughter cells out of their own parent cells. However, researchers don’t understand yet why this bacterium chooses to divide in this asymmetric way.

Another way of asymmetric cell division happens in the bacterium Bacillus subtilis when it produces spores. During the sporulation process, the spore daughter cell grows within the mother cell. In the end, the mother cell bursts to release the spore into the environment. In this case, only one daughter cell comes out of the division process.

Why and how we want to prevent bacteria from dividing

Since cell division is an essential mechanism for bacteria, nature also found ways to inhibit it. Many antibiotics or toxins inhibit the production of cell envelope material or of the Z-ring. Like this, bacteria cannot divide anymore; they cannot grow and die.

However, we also know that some bacteria can find ways around the toxicities of antibiotics or toxins and become resistant to them. Hence, by better understanding how the whole mechanism works, researchers can hopefully find new ways to interfere with bacterial growth and find new weapons in the fight against antimicrobial resistance.

The post Why bacteria divide into two and grow with the help of a strong ring appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

Glue produced by bacteria so that they stick themselves to (almost) any kind of surface?

Bacterial glue that if you covered a space the size of your index fingernail with it, it could hold a weight of up to 680 kg. This is almost ten people! With one fingernail full of bacterial glue! Are bacteria super strong or what?

Okay, you might ask yourself, why would bacteria need to produce such a strong glue? What are they trying to stick together?

Let’s have a look at this bacterial superhero and its superpower in more detail.

Meet Caulobacter crescentus and its superpower

The superhero that produces the strongest glue known in microbes is Caulobacter crescentus.

Caulobacter might even produce the strongest glue found in nature. Its glue is stronger than the ones that geckos produce on their toes to stick to surfaces. And yes, these animals can walk anywhere thanks to their sticky toes!

So, what does Caulobacter add to its glue to make it so sticky?

Sugar! Lots of different sugars create a glue that helps Caulobacter to stick to almost any surface. And because Caulobacter usually lives in water, its super glue is also water-resistant. This is also why the glue is so important for Caulobacter bacteria to grow.

Bacterial glue for almost any surface

To grow and reproduce, Caulobacter bacteria build biofilm houses. These biofilms protect the bacteria from the surroundings and help them become a community and support each other.

But to build a biofilm house, bacteria need a base. Just as you would start building a strong and stable base for your house, so do bacteria.

When Caulobacter decides to build a base for its biofilm house, it starts by growing a so-called stalk. This stalk is a long extension that grows out of the bacterium on one side.

Once this stalk attached to the surface, the Caulobacter produces its super glue. The glue drips out of the stalk and glues the bacterium to the surface. Now, the bacterium is strongly connected to the surface and can start growing.

Glued bacteria divide and grow biofilms

When bacteria grow, they divide their cells in the middle. Usually, when bacteria divide, they produce two identical cells. These are sibling cells that look the same and have the same abilities.

But the interesting thing about Caulobacter is that it produces two different sibling cells. They do not look the same and they have different abilities and goals.

Let’s look at what happens with our Caulobacter bacterium that is glued to a surface.

The bacterium gets longer until it divides in the middle. But when the cell divides, one end remains glued to the surface. The other end will lose the connection to its sibling and thus, to the surface.

This free sibling cell has a flagellum where the other one has the stalk. And thanks to the flagellum, this sibling cell is free to swim away.

So, the free sibling cell swims to a new place to find a new location where it can attach to. Once it found a new place to live, it loses the flagellum and instead grows a stalk. It now glues itself to the surface and the cycle starts from the beginning.

Like this, Caulobacter covers as much surface as possible until the base of the house is full of bacteria. After that, it starts growing on top of each other to finally build the top levels of the biofilm house.

And this is how the Caulobacter crescentus glue helps the bacterium to grow and survive.

Bacterial glue in the tube?

Researchers hope that one day we could use the Caulobacter crescentus glue for our daily lives. This bacterial glue would be biodegradable and thus better for the environment.

What is also remarkable about the Caulobacter crescentus glue is that it is stable in water. Since Caulobacter lives in water, it needs to make sure that it remains stuck to the chosen surface. Hence, it produces such a strong glue so its biofilm house won’t get washed away in the water.

Who would have thought that bacterial glue was a thing? That bacteria produce something so strong? But these are the things most organisms do to assure their own survival.

The post Bacterial glue to grow and survive appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

Do bacteria always only live in one form; either they are single cells or multicellular?

How do we distinguish between unicellular and multicellular bacteria?

Which advantage do bacteria gain from sticking together and forming multicellular organisms?

What are some examples of multicellular bacteria?

In this article, we will answer exactly these questions!

Let’s dig in!

What makes multicellular bacteria?

Scientists define multicellularity as a form of “biological organisation in which a permanent cell aggregate exhibits an activity more complex than that of the individual cells“.

This means that multicellular bacteria are only present in their multicellular forms. True multicellular organisms cannot go back being single-celled.

Hence, bacterial biofilms are no true multicellular organisms. Bacteria can decide between these two lifestyles; they actively produce the biofilm when needed and they break it off and become single cells again.

Also, a bacterial colony in a petri dish is not a multicellular organism. In a colony, a bunch of bacterial cells grow on top of each other. But the cells in the colony are not organised and they do not function in an organised manner.

Multicellular bacteria are organised

The difference here lies in the term biological organisation. Multicellular bacteria are organised due to two different concepts:

They work in an organised manner; bacteria within the multicellular organism need to communicate with each other. Thanks to communication, every bacterium within the organism knows what is going on, so it can react in an organised manner.

Just as when your stomach is empty, it tells your brain that you’re hungry and you react accordingly by eating. Your stomach and your brain are communicating with each other.

The second way to organise multicellular bacteria is by using different functions to advance the whole organism. Within a multicellular organism, some bacteria undergo a process called cell differentiation. Cell differentiation is what makes a human stem cell develop into a skin cell or a blood cell. And this skin or blood cell has more specialised functions than the stem cell that it was before.

The same can happen in multicellular bacteria. Some bacteria develop into specialised cells. These specialised bacterial cells have functions that other cells (or the single version of the bacteria) do not have.

Now, some of the bacteria have additional functions or abilities. And thus, the whole multicellular organism gains new bacterial superpowers that can advance the organism.

Why do bacteria form multicellular organisms?

Here, evolution plays a massive role since multicellularity has so many advantages.

In multicellular organisms, the labour is divided. Just as it is easier for you and your co-workers to work in a team with everyone doing what they are best at. With bacterial cells taking on new functions through cell differentiation, the whole organism profits.

Another advantage is that when bacteria cluster together, they can protect their core. And some multicellular bacteria keep their spores within the core for protection. Like this, their most vulnerable members are protected.

Also, multicellular bacteria are generally bigger than single bacterial cells. This makes it more difficult for attackers to prey on this organism. And we know how much bacterial warfare is going on in the microbial world.

What are some cool examples of multicellular bacteria?

Researchers have not found that many yet. But those multicellular bacteria, that they started to investigate, are pretty cool.

Well, that’s what I think, but see for yourselves.

Multicellularity in chains: filamentous cyanobacteria

Filamentous cyanobacteria are Earth’s oldest multicellular organisms. And thanks to them, we have all this precious oxygen on our planet.

Some cyanobacteria form long chains, so-called filaments. In such an organisation, the whole chain of cyanobacteria is surrounded by one common outer membrane. This means, that all cyanobacteria cells within the filament share one periplasm. And they use this periplasm to communicate with each other and exchange nutrients.

Also, filamentous cyanobacteria like the Anabaena species can undergo cell differentiation. In the picture above, you can see a chain of Anabaena cells. Some cells are smaller, which are the undifferentiated cells, and some are bigger blobs.

The normal-sized cells have photosystems and they perform photosynthesis to produce oxygen.

But when cyanobacteria do not have enough nitrogen, they start to differentiate into those bigger cells, so-called heterocysts. And these heterocysts are now able to fix nitrogen. This helps the organism with its nitrogen limitation.

The reason why Anabaena needs these two cell types is because the chemical processes of oxygen production and nitrogen fixation interfere with each other. They can not happen within one cell, which is why cyanobacteria need to have a different cell type for each process.

In the end, the cells share the produced oxygen and the fixed nitrogen with the whole filament. So everyone is happy with this arrangement.

Multicellular bacteria as electricity producers: cable bacteria

Cable bacteria form – similarly to cyanobacteria – long filaments that are surrounded by one common outer membrane. And they use this arrangement to transport electrons and conduct electricity.

We talked about multicellular cable bacteria in detail in the article Cable bacteria – unusual microbes conducting electricity. Head there to read about this special kind of multicellular bacteria.

Multicellular organisms in cell aggregates: Myxobacteria

Some bacteria, like the well-characterised Myxobacteria, can form huge cell aggregates of up to 100’000 cells. These cell aggregates are called fruiting bodies and their main function is to feed and transport their spores.

The spores have a special place within the Myxococcus fruiting body: They are kept at the core of the fruiting body. Here, they are safe and protected from the surrounding.

Interestingly, myxobacteria are also known as wolf-pack predators, because of the way they attack their preys. They kill their preys by launching a massive attack and secreting lethal bacterial toxins. This kills the prey instantly and the whole fruiting body can feed on the prey.

Multicellular organisms forming hyphae networks: Streptomyces bacteria

Streptomyces bacteria develop a complex network of hyphae within the soil. With this network, Streptomyces bacteria can branch into different directions and elongate the branch tips.

Within the branches, some hyphae within the soil have secluded compartments with walls to separate them from the rest of the network. Yet, Streptomyces uses the hyphae to transport nutrients and chemicals and to communicate.

But when nutrients are missing, the branches grow out of the soil and into the air. Here, they form spores and produce geosmin and antibiotics. This geosmin attracts insects that distribute the spores in the environment.

Plus, by producing antibiotics, Streptomyces tries to kill those microbes that want to eat the spores.

The superhero of multicellularity: Magnetotactic multicellular prokaryotes

Ever since I heard about these bacteria, they became my favourites. And not only because these multicellular bacteria cannot even survive as single cells.

All cells within the magnetic berry are connected to a common core. On the outside of the berry, bacteria have flagella.

And because many of these bacteria assemble together and each one has several flagella, the whole berry is basically covered in bacterial flagella. When all of these flagella start rotating together, the whole berry becomes incredibly fast.

The second feature is, that these magnetotactic bacteria sense the Earth’s magnetic field lines thanks to their magnetosomes. Hence, this magnetotactic superorganism is even more sensitive to the Earth’s magnetic field, which gives it probably even more superpowers.

Lastly, the multicellular magnetotactic bacteria respond to blue light and swim away from it. This is a completely new bacterial ability and researchers are still not sure why these bacteria do that.

Unfortunately, we do not know much about these fascinating organisms, because they are incredibly difficult to grow in the lab. Until now, researchers could only image these bacteria from environmental samples as they still do not know what these bacteria need to survive in the lab.

Multicellular bacteria – an advanced lifestyle

As we have seen in this article, bacteria can grow either as single cells or as multicellular organisms.

By teaming up with their sibling cells, multicellular bacteria gain new superpowers, they can spread out and protect their weakest team members.

From an evolutionary point of view, forming multicellular organisms was a super important step. Only thanks to this, highly-developed animals with all their different cells and organs could develop.

The post Together we are strong – bacteria form multicellular organisms appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

What is bacterial sporulation?

When a bacterium sporulates, it transforms from a rod-shaped bacterial cell (4-10 μm long) to a round, spherical spore (1-1.5 μm long).

Bacterial spores are surrounded by thick layers of cell wall material or peptidoglycan and many layers of proteins. These make the spore highly resilient and shield it from all kinds of environmental assaults, including UV radiation, desiccation and antibiotics. Within the spore, it protects the genetic material of the parent bacterium.

Now the spore is metabolically dormant. This means that the cell has stopped all activities which require energy, like growth and development.

Spores can remain stable for extremely long periods of time. In fact, researchers found Bacillus spores dating back almost 25 million years in the abdomen of extinct bees preserved in Dominican amber. Other samples date back 250 million years from salt crystals.

Why study sporulation?

To date, most studies aim to understand sporulation in the model bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Bacillus subtilis is a Gram-positive bacterium with a thick layer of peptidoglycan outside the cellular membrane.

One of the major reasons why is it relatively easy to study sporulation in Bacillus subtilis is its natural ability to take up foreign DNA and integrate it into its genome. This provides scientists with a wide range of tools for gene editing in Bacillus subtilis. And they can study the functions of different molecules in space and time during sporulation.

Some bacterial spore-formers can also be pathogenic in a human or animal host.

Examples include Bacillus anthracis (the causative agent of anthrax), Clostridium difficile (implicated in colon disease) and Clostridiumm botulinum (implicated in food poisoning). Spores of these pathogenic bacteria can secretly survive inside the host due to their ability to withstand harsh environments. But once they get access to nutrients, they germinate again and become viable bacteria. These bacteria can then release lethal toxins to cause diseases in their respective hosts.

There is some good news for the food lovers too though! Spores of a strain of Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus subtilis (natto) are used to ferment soybeans in a traditional Japanese dish called natto. The critical process in natto preparation is the germination of spores which then use nutrients from the soybeans to ferment them. The dish with its powerful smell and flavor is definitely for the bold!

How does sporulation work?

Normally, a bacterial cell divides in the middle to produce two identical daughter cells. Researchers call this process binary fission or vegetative growth.

But when a bacterium sporulates, the cell divides closer to one end of the cell, near a pole. This leads to the formation of two daughter cells of different sizes. The smaller cell is the forespore and the larger cell is the mother cell.

The two cells are separated by a wall made by the invagination of the cell membrane and the peptidoglycan. This wall is the septum.

Cell division leads to separation between spore and mother cell

Surprisingly, the wall separating the two daughter cells is almost four times thinner during sporulation than during vegetative growth (~22 nm vs ~80 nm).

Scientists have always wondered why the cell would need a thinner septum during sporulation. One reason can be that the forespore and the mother cell need to communicate with each other and exchange certain metabolites. A thinner septum can make this a lot easier because channels don’t have to go through a thick wall.

Another reason could be that the thinner septum is likely more flexible and easier to bend and stretch. Hence, the mother cell can move forward to engulf the forespore so that it is completely inside the mother cell.

Transporting DNA into the spore

When a bacterial cell divides vegetatively, it splits the bacterial DNA equally into two daughter cells.  But an interesting phenomenon occurs during sporulation.

The DNA is trapped at the septum such that the forespore has only 1/3^rd of the DNA and the remaining 2/3^rd stays in the mother cell. A transporter then pumps the rest of the DNA from the mother cell to the forespore.

Packing the whole DNA into the small volume of the forespore probably increases the turgor pressure in the forespore. Hence, the forespore inflates like air in a balloon to give it an ovoid shape.

Bringing the spore inside the mother cell

A critical process during endospore formation is when the mother cell engulfs the forespore. This means that instead of lying side by side, the forespore is now within the mother cell.

To engulf the forespore, the mother cell has to overcome two barriers:

(1) the peptidoglycan that surrounds the bacterial cell on the outside (shown by blue circles in the figure below), and

(2) the septum (also peptidoglycan) that separates the two cells (shown by green circles in the figure below).

But the septum and the bacterial cell envelope are also connected. At this so-called leading-edge the two peptidoglycan structures meet. Here, critical activity happens.

First, enzymes within the forespore (denoted by ‘1’ in the figure) make a new bond with the cell wall ahead of the leading edge. With a new bond between the two, the old bond is no longer needed. Thus, enzymes in the mother cell break this old bond (denoted by ‘2’ in the figure).

Like this, the mother cell can slowly move around the spore until it completed warps around it.

Wrapping the spore in a thick coat

Once the mother cell engulfed the forespore completely, the spore needs to mature. For this, the mother cell builds thick and protective layers around the spore to protect it from the environment.

Ultimately, the mother cell lyses and dies and releases the mature spore into the environment. Only when the environmental conditions become favourable again, spores germinate and normal vegetative growth cycle starts again. 

Bacterial sporulation – a tightly regulated process

Although the process of sporulation sounds pretty simple, it can be extremely challenging to comprehend from the point of view of the bacterial cellular machinery. More than 500 genes are active only during sporulation. And these are not active during vegetative growth.

Also, some genes are only active in the mother cell and others only active in the forespore. And each stage of spore formation needs to be tightly regulated!

The studies of spore formation in Bacillus subtilis have undoubtedly increased our appreciation of what else bacteria are capable of.

However, there are still many unanswered questions and unknown genes during sporulation that we need to study.

Also, we need to expand these studies to understand sporulation in pathogenic spore-formers like Clostridium difficile and Bacillus anthracis so that we can develop treatments for these disease-causing organisms!

Recent sequencing analysis of the human gut microbiota also indicate that around 50-60% of bacteria in a healthy host intestine are spore-formers. But we still don’t understand the functional and physiological relevance of the majority of them.

There is definitely lots to explore and understand about this one-of-a-kind process of sporulation in bacteria!

The post Sporulation in Bacillus subtilis: A strategy for bacterial hibernation appeared first on Bacterialworld.
Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world

Imagine this on a bacterial scale. When a bacterial cell grows, it not only increases its cellular content but also the cell envelope. The bacterial membrane. And the bacterial membrane is like our skin. It needs to grow with the cell.

But how do bacteria grow their membranes?

How do they increase the surface of their membranes to hold the cell content?

Let’s answer these questions by understanding what exactly the bacterial cell envelope looks like.

The double membranes of Gram-negative bacteria

Yes, Gram-negative bacteria have more than one bacterial membrane. They have two – an inner and an outer membrane. 

As you can see in the picture, the inner and the outer membranes look a bit different. This is because they are made of different lipids. Let’s look at them in more detail:

Lipids in the bacterial inner membrane

The bacterial inner membrane contains phospholipids. These molecules always remind me of stick figures.

A phospholipid has one head and two legs. The head of the lipid is negatively charged and likes water – it is hydrophilic. On the other side, the legs are hydrophobic, so they do not like water. They prefer to stick together with hydrophobic legs from other lipid molecules. 

Hence, phospholipids arrange like this: Their legs contact other lipid legs and hide from water. The lipid heads stick together with other heads looking towards the water. 

As such, countless phospholipids assemble to a big lipid layer. And such a layer surrounds the cytosol of the bacterium – as the inner membrane.

Lipids in the bacterial outer membrane

The bacterial outer membrane has different lipids on the inside and on the outside. The inner side of the outer membrane also contains phospholipids and assemble similarly to what I described above.

Yet, the outside of the bacterial outer membrane is made of lipopolysaccharides. 

In stick figure terms, lipopolysaccharides have very big heads because they contain sugars. And depending on the bacterium, lipopolysaccharides have between two and five hydrophobic legs. Also, most lipopolysaccharide heads wear massive hats which are made of fancy sugars. And these sugary hats look different in each bacterium.

As you can see in the picture above, the lipopolysaccharide heads with their sugary hats look to the outside of the bacterium. And their legs interact with the legs from the phospholipids and hide from water.

Like this, the outer membrane completely surrounds the bacterial inner membrane. And the space between the inner and the outer membrane is called the periplasm.

Bacteria have more stuff in their membranes

Bacterial membranes do not only contain lipids. There are proteins too and bacteria need these to live. 

For example, transporter proteins import stuff to feed the bacterium or export waste. The bacterium also holds sensors in the membrane to measure what is going on outside.

Now, we know what the membranes of bacteria look like. Let’s have a look at how bacteria grow these membranes.

How bacteria grow their membranes

When a Gram-negative bacterial cell grows, it needs to grow both its membranes. And for that, it needs to transport lipids into the membranes.

BUT bacteria produce lipids inside the cytosol. So, how can a bacterium send lipids to the outer membrane? There are a whole membrane and periplasm in the way. And the periplasm is basically water with stuff inside and, as we saw before, lipids do not like being in water. 

To overcome these obstacles, bacteria use some cool mechanisms: ferries, tunnels and bridges. 

Bacteria use lipid tunnels to transport phospholipids to the outer membrane

Bacteria produce phospholipids very close to the inner membrane. So, directly after bacteria produce phospholipids, they insert them into the inner membrane. They live here anyway. 

But some of these phospholipids need to reach the other side of the periplasm – the outer membrane. Therefore, these phospholipids use a tunnel that goes through the periplasm and all the way to the outer membrane. 

For this, a protein sits in the inner membrane and pushes phospholipids into the tunnel. The tunnel then moves in waves to transport the phospholipids towards the other side. Here, the phospholipids are directly inserted into the outer membrane.

Like this, the tunnel shields phospholipids from the watery periplasm and transports them. 

Bacteria use lipid ferries to shuttle phospholipids back and forth

A lipid ferry is another mechanism of how bacteria grow their outer membranes. 

This mechanism involves a transporter that sits in the inner membrane. This transporter takes phospholipids from the inner membrane and hands them over to a ferry protein.

This ferry protein shuttles back and forth between the inner and the outer membrane. But it only saves seats for phospholipids. Therefore, it picks up phospholipids on the inner membrane and drops them off at the outer membrane.

Like this, the lipid ferry transports phospholipids and shields them from the watery periplasm.

Bacteria build lipid bridges to transport lipopolysaccharides to the outer membrane

Lipopolysaccharides have by far the farthest to travel to their final destination. 

Bacteria produce lipopolysaccharides close to the inner membrane where they are immediately inserted. A specific transporter then flips the lipopolysaccharide to the other side of the inner membrane.

On the periplasmic side, the flipping transporter hands over the lipopolysaccharide to a bridge. This bridge connects the inner membrane with the outer membrane.

And researchers think that adding a new molecule at the bottom of the bridge pushes other molecules along. Eventually, they then reach the outer membrane. Here, the lipopolysaccharide molecule meets another transporter that flips it to the outside of the outer membrane.

And this is how a lipopolysaccharide molecule makes its way from the cytosol to the surface of the bacterial outer membrane.

Why do we need to know how bacteria grow their membranes?

Here, we explored three mechanisms of how bacteria transport lipids to the outer membrane: tunnels, ferries and bridges. With these mechanisms, bacteria grow their membranes by increasing their lipid content and surfaces. This allows the whole cell to grow and expand.

As soon as we understand how bacteria grow, we can try to inhibit this process.

So, researchers try to understand the mechanisms and the transporters involved. Then they might find molecules that inhibit these machines. An idea would be to stop the lipid transport so that bacteria cannot grow their membranes. This would halt bacterial growth in general and eventually the bacterium would die. Hence, this would be another mechanism to fight antimicrobial resistance.

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Bacterialworld - A blog about bacteria: from scientific studies to vivid stories about the fascinating bacterial world